The Impact of Flipped Classroom Instruction on Iranian Upper-Intermediate EFL Learners' Writing Skill

This study attempted to examine the effects of flipped classroom instruction on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill. To fulfill the objective of the study, 48 Iranian upper-intermediate participants were selected through administrating the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Then, they were divided into two groups; one experimental group and one control group. Then, both groups were pretested by a writing test. After that, the researcher put the participants of the experimental group in a flipped classroom. The flipped classroom was equipped with Internet, computer and projector and participants in this classroom were allowed to bring their Smartphones to the classroom and use them during learning. The control group was exposed to traditional instruction in the class. This procedure continued till the last session. The results of independent samples t-test and one-way ANCOCA revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on the post-test. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the performances of the experimental group and the control group on the post-test.


Introduction
As inverted or flipped models have become increasingly prevalent in the instructional literature and more widely implemented by practitioners over the past several years (Moranski and Kim, 2016), the need to investigate the effects of flipped classrooms on language learning is crucially important. The flipped classroom is a pedagogical strategy that reverses the traditional classroom process by delivering the instructional content usually, but not always, online before class and then engaging learners in interactive group learning and/or critical problem solving activities that are carried out under the teachers' guidance during class (Herreid and Schiller, 2013).
Flipped classrooms are believed to be very useful for teaching and learning. Some pedagogical benefits of the flipped classroom were determined by some researchers. These benefits include (1) students and instructors' positive perceptions of the active learning environment (Butt, 2014;Gilboy et al., 2015), (2) more active engagement during class (Deslauriers et al., 2011), and (3) superior achievement on formative/summative assessments (Amresh et al., 2013). For example, when Love et al. (2014) implemented a flipped linear algebra course, the majority of students reported that the approach helped them develop a deeper understanding of the content. Amresh et al. (2013) reported that students in a flipped introductory computer programming course performed significantly better than did students in a comparable traditional course design on assignments and exams.
Recently, the development of educational technology has allowed flipped classrooms to be easily adopted in higher education contexts (Hamdan et al., 2013). This learning environment can be characterized as studentcentered-students are expected to come to class having already gained the knowledge necessary to actively engage in problem-solving activities with their peers. Throughout the cycle of instruction, they maintain an active role at the center of learning. The practice is based on the assumptions that meaningful interaction among peers encourages knowledge building and that teachers can provide more timely and personalized guidance and feedback during inclass activities (Kim et al., 2017;Nasri and Biria, 2017).
Using flipped classroom can improve EFL learners' writing skill. Writing is really much more than ‗‗orthographic symbolization of speech and most notably it is a purposeful selection and organization of experience'' (Arapoff, 1967). Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) assume that writing, together with other cognitive strategies, ‗‗involves the mental construction of the topic and is developed in view the demand and the knowledge systems of the writer'' (Seitj, 2009). According to Li (2008), writers in English are required to conceive the ideas, choose the appropriate words and material to construct the paragraphs complete the sentences in logical order, and use certain writing techniques and doing the revisions from preparing the writing to its completion.
Second language (L2) writing is more complex than first language (L1) writing. L1 writing involves producing content, drafting ideas, revising writing, choosing appropriate vocabulary, and editing text while L2 writing involves all of these elements jumbled with second language processing issues (Wolfersberger, 2003). L2 writing challenging because they are faced with social and cognitive challenges related to second language acquisition. This is a dynamic cognitive process where writers transform, confirm and generate ideas, retrieve L2 forms, and control the writing procedure (Azadi et al., 2018;Li, 2008).

Objectives and Significance of the Study
Flipped classroom is a kind of opportunity that engages students in their process of learning. Flipped classrooms can involve students more in leaning process in comparison to the traditional classrooms. In general, this study aims to stress the importance of flipped classrooms in educational setting. In particular, this study tends to measure the effects of flipped classrooms on improving Iranian EFL learners' writing skill.
This study is significant for the students since it can increase the cooperation among them as Thakur (2015) says flipped classrooms allow class time be used to master skills through collaborative projects and discussions. This encourages students to teach and learn concepts from each other with the guidance of their teachers.
Flipped classrooms provide the students material necessary to learn a topic. Thus, students' learning is selfpaced as they have control over their learning. They can spend more time on difficult topics, until they understand the concepts, since they have the materials in hand. Bakshi (2015), rightly asserts that instruction in the flipped classroom approach is self-paced since the video lecture is controlled by the students: they can pause, rewind and review the lecture in the home environment until they clearly grasp the concepts, knowledge and skills to be learned.
The results of this study can boost the interaction between the teachers and the students. Advocates of the flipped classroom claim that this practice promotes better student-teacher interaction. Bergmann (2012), believes that when teachers are not standing in front of the classroom talking at students, they can circulate and talk with students.
The findings of the present study are also beneficial for the teachers. The flipped classroom also involves a transformation of the teachers' role. In a traditional class, the teachers can be described as the -sage on the stage‖ that presents information in engaging ways in hopes that students will pay attention and absorb the information (Bergmann, 2012). The flipped classroom moves away from this idea, placing the teacher in the role of the -guide on the side‖ who works with the students to guide them through their individual learning experiences (Bergmann, 2012;Hosseini et al., 2017). The findings of this study can make Ministry of Education recognized the importance of filliped classrooms. Therefore, Ministry of Education has to equip classes with the required facilities such as computer and Internet.

Research Question and Null Hypothesis
This study aims to answer the following research question: RQ. Does flipped classroom instruction have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill? Based on the above-mentioned research question, the following null hypothesis will be tested: HO. Flipped classroom instruction does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill.

Review of the Literature
The -flipped classroom‖ is a new catch phrase in education, but it is not a completely novel idea. Teachers often assign reading to be done at home, and then expect students to engage in conversation about the reading in class. This design could be classified as an inverted classroom (Strayer, 2012). However, a few key characteristics distinguish the flipped classroom from an inverted classroom. In the flipped classroom, students watch videorecorded lectures outside of class, thus increasing time for active learning and practice to occur in class (Namaziandost et al., 2019b). While employing this method may seem slightly different for each teacher, essentially -the ‗flipped' part of the flipped classroom means students watch or listen to lessons at home and accomplish their ‗homework' in class‖ (Fulton, 2012).
Online learning has various definitions. Historically, video lectures were created to provide curriculum access to individuals who lived far from school. Teachers started realizing videos not only assisted off-site students, but also students who were present during lectures (Cascaval et al., 2008;Namaziandost et al., 2019a). Online classes gained popularity in the past decade, especially at the college level. However, students commonly complained about limited interaction and communication in purely online classes (Gecer and Dag, 2012). Flipping the classroom refers to online learning by a series of video lectures, but it is advocated or reinforced by face-to-face classroom discussions and teacher's help. Thus, the flipped classroom is different from traditional online learning environments.
Traditional classroom lectures often follow a one-pace-fits-all philosophy. Teachers may adjust their lectures based on the students' feedback, but some students will undoubtedly find the pace swift, while others find it slow. Video lectures provided through the flipped classroom model allow students to fast forward through examples they already understand, or pause and rewind to revisit topics which may require more processing time (Goodwin and Miller, 2013). Videos allow lectures to be broken into pieces, as opposed to traditional instruction which often contains a large volume of content delivered at one time (Brecht and Ogilby, 2008;Hashemifardnia et al., 2018). Khan (2012), a widely recognized online educator, popularized the flipped classroom through his website, Khan Academy. This website contains over 4,120 short educational videos, most detailing a specific math concept (Mirshekaran et al., 2018;Thomas, 2013). Khan works on the problems step by step on each video. -Khan's idea was that youngsters would watch the videos at home and work on the problems in class, essentially ‗flipping' the classroom‖ (Kronholz, 2012). Students also frequent the website to get homework help when they are stuck on the problem. Khan seeks to change the way people think about education, noting -the old classroom model simply doesn't fit our changing needs‖ (Khan, 2012).
Many schools have used Khan's videos to flip the classroom. Greg Green, principal at Clintondale Community Schools in Michigan, suggested the flipped classroom for its ability to help students who do not do homework at home (Finkel, 2012;Namaziandost et al., 2019c). Students now receive guidance at home in the form of video lectures, and can directly interact with teachers and peers during class time to get answers to their questions. Teachers utilizing Khan Academy to flip their classrooms realize they often work harder during the school day as they are always moving around and interacting with students. It must be noted Khan Academy is not meant as a fixall. Math teacher Courtney Cadwell commented Khan -is not great at helping kids conceptualize math‖ (Kronholz, 2012). Video lectures need to be supplemented with activities which encourage discussion and emphasize the application side of mathematics. When flipping the classroom, teachers must continuously interact with students, adjust instruction on the fly, and prepare activities which complete the videos.
Writing is one of the most difficult language skills to learn (Kurk and Atay, 2007;Namaziandost and Shafiee, 2018). Alsamdani (2010), indicated that -writing is a challenging and difficult process as it includes multiple skills such as identification of the thesis statement, writing supporting details, reviewing, and editing‖ (p. 55). In the same way, Abu-Rass (2001) added that writing is a difficult skill for native and nonnative speakers as students should make balance between multiple issues such as content, organization, purpose, audience, vocabulary, punctuation, spelling, and mechanics.
Writing is a complex skill. Students in English as a foreign language setting will need English writing skills ranging from a simple paragraph and summary skills to write essays and professional articles. As students enter the workforce, they will be asked to convey ideas and information in a clear manner. If students' writing skill is enhanced, it will permit the students to graduate with a skill that will be beneficial for life (Albert-Morgan et al., 2007;Namaziandost et al., 2018a). In fact, good EFL writing, as Lee (2003), stated, is a key concern for teachers, researchers, textbook writers, and program designers in the domain of foreign language teaching.
Writing is the process of conveying thoughts and ideas into written messages. Writing is a contemplated and cognitive process which requires sustained intellectual effort over a considerable period of time. Good writing requires the writer to state himself/herself in a more effective way to concern spelling and dictation. Many writing components are including in writing thus, to accomplish a composition task, writers go through different stages of writing. Alexander (2012), stated that "the writing process is categorized in a five stages sequential pattern (prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing'' (p. 1).
Some studies have been conducted on flipped classroom to measure its effects. For instance, Strayer (2007) studied the effects of the flipped classroom on the learning environment: a comparison of learning activity in a traditional classroom and a flip classroom that used an intelligent tutoring system. The findings of this research revealed that the students in the flipped classroom were less satisfied with how the structure of the classroom directed them to the learning tasks in the course. However, the findings of Marlowe (2012), who inspected the effect of the flipped classroom on student achievement and stress, indicated that the participants of the flipped classroom reported lower stress levels in this type of classroom situation compared to other traditional class. While semester grades showed improvement, exam grades did not show significant improvement. Overall, students displayed positive feelings towards the treatment and enjoyed the associated benefits of being able to choose their own assignments and explore concepts they found interesting more in-depth. Johnson and Jeremy (2012), examined the impact of the flipped classroom model on a secondary computer applications course: student and teacher perceptions, questions and student achievement. The outcomes indicated that no benefit to using the flipped classroom instruction in a secondary computer application. Robert (2014), investigated the flipped classroom model for college algebra: effects on student achievement. The findings of this research show that there was not a statistically significant difference in the scores of students in the two groups; however, students in the flipped sections did score slightly better than the students in the traditional sections. Hashemifardnia et al. (2018), investigated the effect of implementing flipped classrooms on Iranian junior high school students' reading comprehension. To this end, 50 Iranian pre-intermediate students were chosen and randomly assigned into two equal groups; one experimental group (flipped classroom) and one control group (traditional classroom). After that, both groups were pretested through a reading comprehension test. Then, the researchers put the respondents of the experimental group in a flipped classroom. The flipped classroom was equipped with Internet, computer and projector. The students were required to read each text before coming the class and discuss it with their classmates. On the other hand, the control group was taught in the traditional classroom. Before teaching each text, the researchers provided background knowledge for the control group and after teaching each text, the students were required to answer some questions related to the text. In the last session, the post-test of reading comprehension was administered. The findings revealed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group (p < .05) on the post-test.

Participants
The participants of this study were 48 upper-intermediate female language learners who were selected among 74 EFL students. The participants' age range was from 18 to 21. They have been studying English as a foreign language for at least seven years. Their level of English language proficiency was determined on the basis of their scores on the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). The learners were randomly divided into two groups, one experimental group (flipped classroom) and one control group (traditional classroom).

Instruments
The first instrument which was used in the present study to homogenize the participants is the OQPT. It helps the researcher to have a greater understanding of what level (i.e., elementary, pre-intermediate, intermediate) his participants are at. According to this test, the learners whose scores are between 41 and 51 (out of 60) are considered as the upper-intermediate learners.
The second and the most important instrument for gathering the needed data to answer the research question was a researcher-made writing pre-test. It was based on the students' course book (Interchange Two). It included three topics which the students were required to write about one of them arbitrarily. The researcher wanted the participants to write a composition on a selected topic. The respondents should write a composition with at least 200 words. After writing about the topic, all the compositions were collected and graded by two English teachers according to the same criteria. The raters considered the students' grammatical correctness, the meaningful of the sentences and the length of each composition while measuring the students' writing skill. The validity of the pre-test was confirmed by two English experts and its reliability was computed through using inter-rater reliability by means of Pearson correlation analysis and it was 0.989.
A researcher-made writing post-test was used in the present study. The post-test was based on the topics which were taught to the groups. The post-test included two topics and the students should write about one of them. Two raters rated the students' compositions. The post-test was administered to measure the impact of the treatment on the participants' writing improvement. It should be noted that the validity of the post-test was confirmed by two English experts and its reliability was also calculated through using inter-rater reliability by means of Pearson correlation analysis and it was 0.868.

Data Collection Procedure
To conduct the present study, the researcher gave OQPT to 74 Iranian students to determine their level of English proficiency. The researcher selected 48 upper-intermediate students and divided them randomly into two equal experimental group (flipped classroom) and control group (traditional classroom). Then, both groups were pretested. After that, the researcher put the participants of the experimental group in a flipped classroom. The flipped classroom was equipped with Internet, computer and projector and participants in this classroom were allowed to bring their Smartphones to the classroom and used them during learning. The students in the flipped classroom were given 6 topics from Interchange Two. Each topic was sent to the students via Email, WhatsApp or Telegram to the students. The students were required to write about the topic coming the class and discuss it with the classmates. In the class, the teacher could elicit some information from the students, asked them some questions or gave them a test.
On the other hand, the control group was taught in the traditional classroom. The traditional classroom was deprived of the Internet and the students were taught in the classroom rather than out of the classroom. The students have the chance to express their ideas and share those ideas with others and encourage new idea. This procedure continues till the last session. After the treatment, in the last session, both groups took the post-test of writing.

Data Analysis Procedure
Firstly, Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test was used to check the normality of the gathered data. Then, the descriptive statistics were calculated through using SPSS software, version 25. Finally, paired and independent samples t-tests were run to determine the effectiveness of flipped and traditional classrooms on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill.

Results
It was stated above that 48 upper intermediate learners were drawn from a larger pool of EFL learners as a result of their scores on the placement test, and were assigned to the two groups of EG and CG. To further ascertain the homogeneity of the two groups in terms of their writing ability before the treatment, their pretest scores were compared via an independent-samples t test:  Table 1 shows that the EG learners' mean score on the pretest equaled 13.8125 and the CG learners' mean score was 14.2708. To see whether the difference between these two mean scores, and thus the two groups on the pretest, was statistically significant or not, the researcher had to examine the p value under the Sig. (2-tailed) column in the t test table. In this table, a p value less than .05 would indicate a statistically significant difference between the two groups, while a p value larger than .05 indicates a difference which failed to reach statistical significance. Based in the information presented in Table 2, there was not a statistically significant difference in the pretest scores for EG (M = 13.8125, SD = 1.10151) and CG (M = 14.2708, SD = 1.53919), t (46) = -1.186, p = .242 (twotailed). This conclusion was made since the p value was larger than the significance level (p > .05). Hence, it could be inferred that the learners in the two groups were at the same level of pretest.
As the research question of the study was intended to figure out whether flipped classroom instruction have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill, the posttest scores of the EG and CG learners had to be compared. To attain this objective, the researcher could run an independent-samples t test, but to control for any possible pre-existing differences between these two subgroups, and compare their post-test scores accordingly, oneway ANCOVA was chosen to be conducted: In Table 3, it could be found that the post-test mean score of the EG learners (M = 16.3125) was larger than the post-test mean score of the CG learners (M = 14.6250). To find out whether this difference was a statistically significant one or not, the researcher had to look down the Sig. column and in front of the Groups row in Table 4: In Table 4, if you find the row labeled Groups in the leftmost column, and read across this row, under the Sig. column, you can find the p value, which should be compared with the alpha level of significance (i.e., .05). The p value here was lower than the alpha level of significance (.00 .05), which indicates that the difference between the two groups of EG (M = 16.3125) and CG (M = 14.6250) on the writing post-test was statistically significant. This means that using the flipped classroom instruction could significantly improve the writing learning of the EG learners.
Another noteworthy piece of information in Table 4 is the effect size value, shown under the Partial Eta Squared column in front of Groups. This value equaled .494, which means that the treatment (i.e., using the flipped classroom instruction) accounted for 49% of the difference between the EG and CG learners.

Discussion and Conclusion
This study attempted to address the question that was: Does flipped classroom instruction have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill? Subsequently, the following null hypothesis was formulated and explored: Flipped classroom instruction does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill.
The hypothesis of this study is rejected since the results showed that there was a significant difference between wrting skill scores on the posttest through using flipped classroom instruction and traditional instruction.
In sum, after administrating various analyses, it was manifested that utilizing flipped classroom instruction to learning writing skill could be an advantageous technique which can significantly expand the skill of writing. As a matter of fact, the participants who were taught the writing skill through flipped classroom instruction performed more successfully on the post-test than those who taught through traditional instruction. In fact, using flipped classroom instruction improved writing skill more effectively.
This improvement in the experimental group writing may be attributed to using flipping. Also, the experimental group showed improvement in their writing skills: ideas and content, organization, voice, and style. This indicated that flipping can have a positive effect on improving students' writing skills. Since only 22% of undergraduate university write at or above the proficient level, the results of this study are important to help university English instructors find methods to assist students in improving writing skills that are needed later on in life. This would indicate that teachers need to use any means available to develop this skill. Since flipping is an available tool, teachers should use this tool to improve writing skills that will help the students as they get a job.
Flipped learning has a positive effect on student writing abilities. Flipped learning can provide the students with an opportunity to learn in a more differentiated fashion rather than linear and didactic (Butt, 2014;Tune et al., 2013;Willey and Gardner, 2013). Students noted several times that they appreciated the ability to digest the content of their essays and writing exercises when they deemed necessary, so long as it was done before the next class period. Though the majority of students completed the required outside content on a fairly regular basis, there was always a small portion that did not (Davies et al., 2013;Murphree, 2014;Namaziandost et al., 2018b). The results of the study are also consistent with the constructivist theories of learning. Students in the experimental group constructed their long-term learning by applying inductive learning strategies to improve their writing skills in opposition with Chomsky's simplified notion of language learning as an unconscious process. Their learning occurred as a result of critically analyzing key concepts at their own pace in an individualized setting such as their homes. In this fashion, they improved their English writing proficiency by consciously following taught strategies. Furthermore, the findings of the study also support the impact of the method of instruction on students' achievement in writing through the form-focused instruction and input-based instruction (Ellis, 1997;Namaziandost et al., 2018b). Students in the experimental group emphasized the input-based instruction, which helped them to consciously notice the language features.
In terms of student engagement, flipped learning received the most positive remarks from students in the qualitative surveys, especially when addressing the use of class time. Students perceived the use of classroom activities that activated higher-order thinking to be able to write different types of essays and perform their writing tasks (Davies et al., 2013;Lemmer, 2013;Murphree, 2014;Namaziandost et al., 2018b). Additionally, the environment afforded students to remain at higher levels of Bloom's Taxonomy for longer periods of time (Enfield, 2013). The longer students remain in the higher levels of thinking and problem solving, the more they feel engaged with their writing tasks, and the perceived quality of the learning is greater as they have more and more time to brainstorm their minds and jot down their ideas at their own pace (Namaziandost and Ahmadi, 2019). In addition, it was clear that a flipped learning environment better prepares students for the written work environment. Bruce et al. (2012), indicated that Informed Learning was a key piece to students feeling comfortable with how to learn. How students took the written tasks that is given to them, made sense of it, and learned from it in authentic ways, is what gave students confidence in learning beyond the classroom (Lemmer, 2013). This idea was the premise of every flipped learning environment tested in this review. The results of the study are consistent with active learning. Flipped learning empowered students through more active learning (Butt, 2014;Findlay-Thompson and Mombourquette, 2014). Rather than having the instructor's interpretation of the material delivered explicitly during class time where students passively took notes and possibly asked questions, the students were held more accountable for the front-loading of their writing content. Students can revise content outside the class space and synthesize the material at their own pace. By assigning the videos to be watched as homework, the teacher aims to situate the content of the writing lesson in the learners' world. Active learning is generally defined as one that engages students in the learning process, where learners are actively and extensively involved in activities and are responsible for and have ownership over their learning. This more active role is difficult for some students to adjust to, but it was evident that they do prefer it, especially looking at the percentage of students who prefer a flipped environment to a traditional one (Enfield, 2013;Namaziandost et al., 2018b;Tune et al., 2013).
The findings could also be interpreted as the benefits of combining different teaching methods, which are a form of blended learning and a set of rich class tasks that are differentiated depending on students' personal and diverse abilities. These tasks represented individualized in-class learning plans that engaged students in an inquiry that led them to reach the same learning outcome in a differentiated, more personalized manner. All in all, students' performance showed a better understanding, a higher knowledge, and improved writing skills. The FCI and the corresponding class activities were carefully designed to help learners to clearly express their ideas and logically organize them in an interesting and correct way. Consequently, the FCI could be openly credited to the writing progress. The rich input through the videos and the following classroom interaction and individualized tasks promoted better skills and enhanced the written productions on the different levels of rhetoric and linguistic level of the language. Students attentively noticed the new linguistic concepts presented in the videos. They were given ample opportunities in the task-based activities to analyze information, focus on the output production, and be engaged in their writing. Hence, adjusting the teaching method to include well-defined writing knowledge enhanced students' awareness of good writing strategies. The FCI approach holds that students have more time to write in class, apply their learning, and receive immediate feedback and prompting from the teacher who assists them through their individualized tasks to ensure a production that reflects improved content, organization, cohesion, sentence structure, and lexical conventions.
In addition, taking into account data from students' responses on the questionnaire, it was found that a considerable number of students felt more motivated and independent because of the Flipped Classroom Instruction. Learner autonomy is best manifested in students through better confidence in their attainment and abilities. This is a feature, which was reported by many students in the experimental group who felt greater confidence to their learning and skills. This, of course, was reflected not only through the questionnaire but also through the improved results, and was found to be consistent with Smith (2008), who views learners in the center of their learning, which is enhanced by Blended Approaches to Learning. Past research (Liu, 2013;Nasri et al., 2018) holds that learners today highly appreciate computers and technology, and blended learning in general increases student-centeredness, motivation, autonomy, and writing ability.
Throughout the past years, there has been much emphasis on the importance of using educational technology in the teaching of languages. Starting with Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and moving onwards, there seems to be an improvement in the quality of students' writing. The results of this study indicate that not only did flipping classroom instruction improve students' attainment in writing but also it improved their overall attitudes and beliefs towards the writing skill. Moreover, this teaching method boosted students' motivation and class engagement. Students in the experimental group demonstrated a better writing attainment through the FCI, and found that they became more engaged and responsible of their learning.