Differences in Leadership Styles of Principals in Public Colleges of Education in Ghana Based on their Personal Characteristics

The study investigated the differences in leadership styles exhibited by principals of public Colleges of Education in Ghana in relation to their sex, age, years of work experience, and academic qualification. The cross-sectional survey design was adopted for the study. The target population was made up of all 46 principals of public Colleges of Education in Ghana. The target population consisted of all 38 public Colleges of Education which were in existence before the absorption of eight private Colleges of Education by the government of Ghana into public system. The purposive sampling technique was used to select 38 principals for the study. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire developed by Bass and Avolio (2004) was adapted to collect data. Means, standard deviations, t-test and ANOVA were used to analyse the data. The findings revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in the leadership styles of the principals of public Colleges of Education in Ghana based on their sex, age, and academic qualification. However, there were statistically significant differences in the leadership styles adopted by the principals in relation to their years of work experience. It was therefore concluded that many years of experience of principals of public CoEs in Ghana is critical for good leadership in these colleges. Among the recommendations was that the National Council for Tertiary Education (NCTE) should consider years of work experience in the selection and appointment of principals for public Colleges of Education in Ghana. Additionally, in-service training and refresher courses should be organized regularly by NCTE for principals on the leadership styles suitable for achievement of objectives and goals of their colleges.


Introduction
The importance of education cannot be overemphasized because it leads to the development of desirable habits, skills, and attitudes through shaping or modifying behaviour of the individual for adequate adjustment in the society. This implies that once an individual is educated, he or she will adjust or try to adjust to the environment. It is for this reason that it is widely acknowledged that education forms the foundation for developing human resource, which is essential for national development. The educational system of every nation is greatly influenced by its ideology of life Waters (2013) and in Ghana, Colleges of Education (CoEs) are tertiary institutions mandated by Act 847 of Parliament to among other things, train students to acquire the necessary academic and professional competences for teaching in pre-tertiary, and non-formal education institutions, and build the academic and professional capacities of serving teachers through regular continuing education. Thus, one key and critical policy of Ghana government is to produce and recruit competent and dedicated teachers to improve the quality of teaching and learning at the basic education level.
To effectively achieve the mandate of CoEs and the educational policies of Ghana through procedures and decision making, there is no doubt that principals of CoEs, as academic and administrative leaders, have a crucial role to play. Lunenburg and Ornstein, as cited in Avci (2015) therefore argue that the leadership role of the college principal is critical and probably constitutes the most important feature of the principal. Principals lead teaching and non-teaching staff as well as students to achieve collectively agreed upon goals (Andrew, 2009). This suggests that principals of CoEs in Ghana know the way, show the way and walk the way Makewa et al. (2015) and as a result, must lead by example to shape and fulfil the purpose and outcome of educational activities (Clifford, Behrstock-Sherrat, & Fetters, cited in Brezicha et al. (2015). Thus, a leader is one of the basic needs of every institution and one of the most essential elements which holds an institution together, ensures its efficient operation, and assure achieving corporate success (Avci, 2015).
Some conceptual conflicts exist in the meaning of leadership. This is why leadership is perceived globally as something very crucial for the success of organisations but it is understood differently by different scholars (Phipps and Prieto, 2011;Yukl, 2010). However, most experts define it as the process through which an individual affects other group members with the aim of achieving organisational goals (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2013). Leadership is also the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of organisational objectives (Adeyemi and Bolarinwa, 2013). Such an influence is basically considered as reciprocal based on relationships between and among individuals, groups, and the settings in which they find themselves.
Inferring from George (2004) it could be said that the process through which principals of CoEs in Ghana influence their subordinates mirrors their personality and character. Thus, the way they perform their leadership role essentially shapes their thinking, acting, and feelings in their respective Colleges. Through the knowledge of leadership theories, experts in the field of leadership have classified leadership styles in different ways. One of these classifications is based on the Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) developed by Bass and Avolio (2004) which encompasses transactional, transformational and laissez-faire leadership styles (in a continuum). The FRLT is based on the argument that every leader may exhibit, to a certain extent, transactional, transformational and laissez-faire leadership styles.
Transformational leadership emphasises the connections formed between the leader and the followers, and which bring about increased motivation and morality in both the leader and the followers (Amanchukwu et al., 2015). Transformational leaders motivate and inspire followers to see the essence of completing tasks. Such leaders stress on performance of group members but ensures each individual also fulfills his or her potential.
Transactional leadership as explained by Bass (2008) focuses on the exchanges between leaders and followers which makes it possible for leaders to direct behaviours of followers to complete required task, and focus on improving organizational efficiency in order to attain set goals. According to Charry (2012) transactional leadership is based on a system of rewards and punishments. Lamb (2013), posits that transactional leadership is mostly seen as similar to the concept and practice of management and it is a very common aspect of many leadership models and organizational structures. Laissez-faire leadership style focuses on leaders who allow their subordinates to work on their own, hence, abdicating responsibilities, avoiding decision making, giving followers complete freedom to do their work and set their own deadlines (Amanchukwu et al., 2015;Chaudhry and Javed, 2012). Thus, laissez-faire leadership style is where leaders provide followers with the needed resources and advice, if needed, otherwise they do not get involved.
To achieve the objectives and goals of CoEs in Ghana, principals of CoEs through their leadership styles, directly or indirectly affect all aspects of the college including classroom processes and academic performance (Sammons et al., 2011) resulting in clarity of issues, commitment, sense of responsibility in the work environment, less absenteeism, and high performance among subordinates (Sawati et al., 2013). The debate by researchers on the leadership style that is mostly used by principals of schools has been going on for a long time and there is no conclusion on the issue. For instance, school principals have been found to exhibit transformational leadership style more than transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles (Amponsah, 2015;Hariri, 2011;Waters, 2013). Boateng (2012), however, found out from a study in Ghana that principals employed transactional leadership style more than transformational and laissez-faire leadership styles.
Some studies have established that sex does not influence the choice of a leadership style by principals (AlFahad et al., 2013;Amponsah, 2015;Bimpeh, 2012;Waters, 2013). However, Adu et al. (2014), and Salfi et al. (2014) observed a significant difference in leadership behaviours of male and female principals. It is believed that age and experience influence leadership styles because a myth exists in most cultures, especially in Africa that, as people get older, they become wiser as a result of more exposure and experience (Ibukun et al., 2011).
A significant relationship was established between age and leadership styles of principals and managers (Bell et al., 2015;Mosadeghrad and Ferdosi, 2013). Contrarily, Amponsah (2015), Mushtaq and Akhtar (2014), and Sawati et al. (2013) did not establish any correlation between age and leadership styles of principals. It has also been revealed that there is no significant association between the leadership styles of more experienced principals and less experienced ones (Amponsah, 2015;Nakpodia, 2009;Waters, 2013). On the other hand, a significant difference between principals' years of experience and their leadership styles have been established (Adu et al., 2014;Kotur and Anbazhagan, 2014).
Scholars argue that educational qualification is a significant and predictive measure of good leadership and that through education and training, leaders can improve on their style of leadership to achieve set objectives of organisations (Bell et al., 2015;Sadeghi and Lope, 2012). This implies that for principals of public CoEs in Ghana to be successful in leading their colleges, they need to update their knowledge and skills through further education, training and seminars. Some studies have found no correlation between principals' leadership style and their level of education (Raman et al., 2015;Sawati et al., 2013) even though others have revealed a significant relationship, suggesting that leadership styles exhibited by well-educated leaders and those who are less educated are different (Kotur and Anbazhagan, 2014). Hence, principals would not be effective leaders unless they are well equipped with knowledge and skills in management and leadership (Nsubuga, 2009).
Principals of public CoEs in Ghana, employ different leadership styles in their quest to achieve college and educational goals. The personal variables that influence the choice of leadership styles by these principals are not clearly established. There is however, a seeming perception among students and tutors of these colleges that female principals adopt transactional leadership style more than their male counterparts while male principals are more transformational in their leadership approach than their female counterparts. Again, there seems to be a general perception that older, knowledgeable, and experienced principals of public CoEs in Ghana perform better as leaders than the younger and inexperienced ones. One wonders if these perceptions are true.
Findings from various studies are inconclusive on the type of demographic characteristics that determine the choice of leadership styles by principals. This could account for the numerous arguments by scholars and researchers on the nature and significance of demographic variables in explaining the differences in leadership styles (Bell et al., 2015). The question one may ask is, what differences exist in the choice of leadership styles by principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to gender, age, years of work experience, and academic qualifications? Studies on the choice of leadership style in relation to sex, age, years of work experience, and academic qualification are rare in the context of public CoEs in Ghana. It was therefore prudent to undertake this study to answer the question and contribute to knowledge, literature, and debate on the topic.

Hypotheses
H0 1 : There is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their sex. H0 2 : There is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their age. H0 3 : There is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their years of work experience. H0 4 : There is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their academic qualification.

Methodology
The cross-sectional survey design (Creswell and Creswell, 2018) was adopted for the study. Principals of CoEs in Ghana formed the target population while the accessible population comprised all forty-six (46) principals of public CoEs. Through the purposive sampling technique, all the forty-six (46) principals were selected for the study. Bass and Avolio (2004) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was adapted and used for the data collection.
The questionnaire was pre-tested in one of the public Colleges of Education in Ghana. The analysis of the pre-test data yielded a reliability Alpha Co-efficient of 0.81 and this, according McMillan and Schumacher (2010) shows an internal consistency of the questionnaire since the obtained Cronbach's alpha coefficient was more than 0.70. Questionnaires from thirty-eight (38) principals were used for the analysis because eight (8) of the principals failed to return their questionnaire even after several attempts to retrieve them. Mean, standard deviation, t-test and ANOVA were used to analyse the data.

Results and Discussion
In analysing the data, descriptive (mean, and standard deviation) and inferential (t-test and ANOVA) statistics were employed.

Bio-Data
The results of the analysis of the bio-data are presented in Table 1. The analysis of the bio-data in Table 1 shows that the respondents used for the study were made up of 89.5% male principals and 10.5% female principals, suggesting that there were more male principals in public CoEs in Ghana than their female counterparts. Considering the age of the respondents, it was found out that 5.3% were between the ages of 41 and 50 years while 94.7% were between the ages of 51 and 60 years. With years of work experience, 13.2% of the respondents had been in their CoE between three and five years, 18.4% had worked in their colleges between six and nine years while 68.4% had worked for 10 years or more. More so, 21.1% of the respondents had Doctoral degree while 78.9% possessed Masters degree.

Differences in Leadership Style of Principals in Relation to Their Sex
In analyzing the differences in the means obtained for the various leadership styles, the following interpretations were used: Once in a while (0.1-1.0); sometimes (1.1-2.0); fairly often (2.1-3.0); and frequently if not always (3.1-4.0). The results of the test of the first hypothesis are displayed in Table 2. The data in Table 2 indicate that both male (M=2.83, SD=0.16) and female (M=2.73, SD=0.28) principals of public CoEs fairly often exhibited transformational leadership even though the male principals rated higher than their female counterparts. It is noted that both male (M=1.23, SD=0.23) and female (M=1.45, SD=0.17) principals sometimes practiced transactional leadership style. However, the female principals had a higher mean rating than the male principals. Again, male (M=1.10, SD=0.57) and female (M=1.20, SD=0.45) principals sometimes used laissezfaire leadership style although the female principals used it more than the male principals.
The test of significance using independent samples t-test revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in means for transformational leadership [t (13)=0.868, p=0.401, 2-tailed], transactional leadership [t (13)=-1.924, p=0.076, 2-tailed], and laissez-faire leadership [t (13)= -0.342, p=0.738, 2-tailed] styles at 0.05 in relation to gender. Hence, the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their gender was accepted.
It could therefore be said that the leadership styles adopted by principals of public CoEs in Ghana is not related to whether these principals are males or females. This finding corroborates that of Amponsah (2015), Waters (2013), and Bimpeh (2012)

Differences in Leadership Style of Principals in Relation to Their Age
The results of the test of the second hypothesis are shown in Table 3. Considering the data in Table 3 it is observed that principals between 41 and 50 years (M=2.88, SD=0.16) and those between 51 and 60 years (M=2.77, SD=0.77) fairly often used transformational leadership. However, principals who were between the ages of 51 and 60 years were perceived to use transformational leadership more than principals between 41 and 50 years. Principals with ages from 51 to 60 years (M=1.33, SD=0.25) and 41 to 50 years (M=1.17, SD=0.40) sometimes used transactional leadership style even though those with ages from 51 to 60 years were rated higher than those with ages from 41 to 50 years. In the same way, principals with ages from 51 to 60 years (M=1.17, SD=0.58) sometimes practiced laissez-faire leadership style while their counterparts with ages from 41 to 50 years (M=1.0, SD=0.43) practiced laissez-faire leadership styles once in a while.
The results of the test of significance using independent samples t-test showed there were no statistically significant differences in the means for transformational [t (13)=0.872, p=0.399, 2-tailed], transactional [t (13)= -1.117, p=0.284, 2-tailed] and laissez-faire [t (13)=-0.486, p=0.635, 2-tailed] leadership styles at 0.05 in relation to age. As a result, the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their age was accepted. It could therefore be inferred that the leadership styles used by the principals is not contingent on their age.
The finding substantiates that of Amponsah (2015), Mushtaq and Akhtar (2014), and Sawati et al. (2013) who found no relationship between age and leadership styles of principals. However, the findings differ from those of Bell et al. (2015) and Mosadeghrad and Ferdosi (2013) whose studies revealed a significant influence of age on principals' leadership styles.

Differences in Leadership Styles of Principals in Relation to their Years of Work Experience
The results of the test of the third hypothesis are presented in Table 4. It is realised from the data in Table 4 that principals with 1-5 years (M=2.85, SD=0.15), 6-10 years of work experience (M=2.84, SD=0.16), and 11-15 years (M=2.45, SD=0.41) work experience fairly often adopted transformational leadership style even though those with 1-5 years of work experience were rated the highest in the use of transformational leadership style. It is also realised that principals with 11-15 years (M=1.67, SD=0.12), 6-10 years (M=1.28, SD=0.25), and 1-5 years (M=1.21, SD=0.13) of work experience sometimes exhibited transactional leadership style. Nonetheless, principals with 11-15 years of work experience were rated highest in the use of transactional leadership style. Furthermore, principals with 11-15 years (M=1.50, SD=0.71), and 6-10 years (M=1.17, SD=0.41) sometimes exhibited laissez-faire leadership style even though those with 11-15 years of work experience rated highest as compared with those with 6-10 years of work experience. However, principals with 1-5 years of work experience (M=1.00, SD=0.58) once in a while, portrayed the use of laissez-faire leadership style.
The results of the One-way (between groups) ANOVA as shown in Table 3 disclosed that no statistically significant differences were found in the means for laissez-faire [F (2, 12) =0.720, p=0.507], leadership style. However, statistically significant differences were observed in the means for transformational [F (2, 12) =5.895, p=0.016] and transactional [F (2, 12) = 0 4.430, p=0.036] at 0.05 in relation to years of work-experience. Based on the interpretation of Eta Squared values as indicated by Pallant (2007), the Eta Squared value of 0.50 obtained for transformational leadership implied that there were great differences in the transformational leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their years of work experience. Similarly, the Eta Squared value of 0.42 obtained for transactional leadership implied great differences in the choice of transactional leadership style by the principals in relation to their years of work experience.
It could therefore be inferred that there were differences in transformational and transactional leadership styles adopted by principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their years of work experience but such differences were not seen with respect to their choice of laissez-faire leadership style. Hence, I failed to accept the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their academic qualification.
The findings seems to contradict that of Amponsah (2015), Waters (2013), and Nakpodia (2009) who established from their various studies that there is no significant association between the leadership styles of more experienced principals and less experienced ones. On the other hand, the findings of the study seems to substantiate that of Adu et al. (2014) and Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014) that a significant difference exist between the leadership styles of principals in terms of their years of work experience. It is argued that generally, principals with more years of work experience have spent more years on the job, attended professional workshops, seminars, and conferences. Hence, they would have been exposed to new knowledge and skills in leadership. This is why Deng and Gibson (2008) maintain that leadership is a lot about learning by doing and that experiences gained from everyday practice are unique, and essential (Ibukun et al., 2011).

Differences in Leadership Styles of Principals in Relation to their Academic Qualification
The results of the test of the fourth hypothesis are displayed in Table 5. From the data in Table 5 it is seen that principals with Doctoral degree (M=2.85, SD=0.21) and those with Masters degree (M=2.78, SD=0.20) fairly often made use of transformational leadership style. However, principals with Doctoral degree used it more than those with Masters degree. The data further indicate that even though principals with Doctoral degree (M=1.17, SD=0.32) and those with Masters degree (M=1.32, SD=0.24) sometimes used transactional leadership style, those with Masters degree were rated higher. Principals with Doctoral degree (M=1.00, SD=0.41) once in a while used laissez-faire leadership style while those with Masters degree (M=1.15, SD=0.55) sometimes used laissez-faire leadership style.
The t-test results as presented in Table 5 depict that there were no statistically significant differences in the means for transformational [t (13)=-0.422, p=0.680, 2-tailed], transactional [t (13)=0.861, p=0.405, 2-tailed], and laissez-faire [t (13)=0.380, p=0.710, 2-tailed] leadership styles at 0.05 in relation to academic qualification. Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the leadership styles of principals of public CoEs in Ghana in relation to their academic qualification is accepted.
The inference from these results is that leadership styles adopted by the principals are not determined by their academic qualifications. This supports the findings of Amponsah (2015), Sawati et al. (2013) and Raman et al. (2015) that there is no relationship between the level of education of principals and the leadership style they adopt. However, the findings contradict that of Kotur and Anbazhagan (2014) who established an influence of educational qualification on the practice of leadership styles.

Conclusions and Recommendations
The study established that male and female principals of CoEs fairly often demonstrated transformational leadership style with the males rating higher than the females. On the other hand, both male and female principals sometimes exhibited transactional leadership styles with the females rating higher than males. However, this did not indicate any relationship between sex and the use of transformational or transactional leadership style by the principals. It could therefore be concluded that the difference in means for male and female principals for the use of either transformational or transactional leadership style may not necessarily be due to differences in sexes, but may basically be as a result of the internal environmental conditions in the colleges as suggested by Cuadrado et al. (2008).
An important finding from the study was that there were differences in transformational and transactional leadership styles adopted by principals of public CoEs in relation to their years of work experience. It is perceived that many years of experience of principals of public CoEs in Ghana is an asset to good leadership. This substantiates the popular adage that, "experience is the best teacher" Ibukun et al. (2011). The study also established that the differences in leadership styles used by the principals were not dependent on their age, and academic qualification.
The findings from the study will significantly contribute to the body of knowledge in leadership in public CoEs and extend literature on leadership styles. Again, the findings will contribute to the debate on the influence of demographic variables on leadership styles, thereby, creating avenues for further research in understanding leadership styles of principals. The findings of the study have practical and policy implications for NCTE and other stakeholders on the appointment of principals for public CoEs in Ghana, and the continuous professional training of the principals to enable them adopt good strategies and mechanisms to ensure good leadership in the colleges.
It is therefore recommended that in the processes of appointing principals for public CoEs in Ghana, the NCTE should not consider personal variables such as gender, age, and academic qualification since they were found not to influence the choice of any leadership style by the principals. However, NCTE, should as a matter of policy, consider years of work experience of candidates in terms of their knowledge and skills in educational leadership when recruiting, selecting and appointing principals for public CoEs in Ghana. Again, the NCTE should organise regular in-service training programmes and refresher courses on leadership and supervisory tasks of principals to enable them perform their duties very well to achieve college and educational goals.